Basilica of San Vitale
Jenna Sumners
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General Description:
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The Basilica of San Vitale is the most famous monument in Ravenna, Italy and is one of the most important examples of Byzantine Art and architecture in Western Europe. Construction on San VitaleThe church began in 527 by Bishop Ecclesius, when Ravenna was under the rule of the Ostrogoths, and completed by the 27th Bishop of Ravenna, Maximian in 548 during the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna. The architect of this church is unknown, but he was certainly among the best architects of his time..
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Architectural Design:
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The church has an octagonal plan that combines the Roman elements of domes, shaped doorways, and stepped towers with the Byzantine elements of capitals and narrow bricks; however, the basilica is most famous for its Byzantine mosaics. Outside of Constantinople, it is the largest and best preserved. The central section of the church is surrounded by two ambulatories, or places for walking. In the church building reserved for clergy, there is a cross ribbed vault enhanced with mosaics of leaves, fruit and flowers, that come together on a crown encircling the Lamb of God.
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Harmony with Nature:
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Many of the mosaics within the curch display aspects of nature such as fruit, flowers, trees, and birds. The setting of the church, as well as the works of art inside of it create a harmony with nature.
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Symbolism and Sacred Objects:
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At the foot of the apse side walls are two mosaic panels built in 548. On the left is a mosaic depicting the Emperor Justinian who is wearing purple robes with a golden halo, standing next to court officials, Bishop Maximian, praetorian guards and deacons. The halo around his head gives him the same aspect as Christ. Justinian himself stands in the middle, with soldiers on his left and clergy on this right, emphasizing that Justinian is the leader of both church and state of his empire. He also holds a paten and is shown with a 3 day beard to show that too busy to shave since he is performing his duties as emperor. The gold background of the mosaic shows that Justinian and his entourage are inside the church and gives off an otherworldly,spiritual vibe. The figures are placed in a V shape; Justinian is placed in the front and in the middle to show his importance with Bishop Maximian on his left and lesser individuals being placed behind them. This placement can be seen through the overlapping feet of the individuals present in the mosaic. On the right side is Empress Theodora solemn and formal, with golden halo, crown and jewels, and a train of court ladies, almost depicted as a goddess.
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How it is Used by Worshippers:
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San Vitale was used as a place of worship in Byzantine era following its construction. However, now it is more of a tourist attraction, but it is still used as a church and a place of sanctuary for those who wish to come. It stands as a symbol of the importance of religion, both in the past and to this day.
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Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale
http://www.sacred-destinations.com/italy/ravenna-san-vitale.htm
http://www.sacred-destinations.com/italy/ravenna-san-vitale.htm
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Stonehenge.
Stephen Warren
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General Description:
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Stonehenge is an ancient megalithic site located in the southwestern England county of Wiltshire. It is generally thought to date to at least 2000 BC although other theories say that it may be even older. It consists of huge stones of varying sizes laid out in a circular shape and is thought to have been an ancient burial site.
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Architectural Design:
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According to the UN world heritage agency UNESCO, Stonehenge is “the most architecturally sophisticated prehistoric stone circle in the world” that is “unrivalled in its design and unique engineering” and consists of “huge horizontal stone lintels capping the outer circle and the trilithons, locked together by carefully shaped joints.” The circle of stones, known as the Sarsen Circle is about 108 feet in diameter and originally consisted of 30 sandstone blocks. Today, only 17 have been left standing. Originally, they supported lintels and formed a continuous circle all the way around. The lintels were fitted using a joint known as the tongue-and –groove. The Sarsen stones consist of a hard-grained sandstone and are thought to have been brought in from Marlborough Downs which is about 20 miles away from Stonehenge. There is also a grouping of five pairs of upright stones known as trilithons which are located within the Sarsen Circle and are arranged in a horseshoe shape. The lintels remain on only three out of an original five trilithons.
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Harmony with Nature:
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Stonehenge’s harmony with nature is demonstrated in the natural stone materials that were used in its construction. The massive stones were shaped into column like structures and arranged in a natural circular shape. The site is also in harmony with the sun during the summer solstice when the sun sets on the heel stone which is located at the edge of the site.
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Symbolism and Sacred Objects:
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The site was used as a burial site that involved human burials and cremations. A recent archeological study found that it was used as a burial site for longer than first thought. In Hengeworld, a book by archaeologist Mike Pitts, it is suggested that the site was used to host ceremonies where the dead were taken to Stonehenge which was considered to be the world of their ancestors. Also, stone was often considered to represent the dead in certain cultures and wood was representative of the living. Woodhenge is a wooden ruin located close to Stonehenge that may have been used for ceremonies for the living.
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How it is used by Worshippers:
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One of the theories is that the blue stones used in the construction of Stonehenge were thought by the people of the time to have healing powers. According to Professor Darvill at Bournemouth University in England, one of the ideas under investigation is that “Medieval legend tells us that the power of bluestone had the ability to make people well.”. So Stonehenge may have been a location for healing in ancient England. Other theories are that it was used to worship ancestors or that it was used as a calendar. Also, the site continues to attract a New Age following, especially each year during the summer Solstice.
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Sources:
Source 4 - http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/373
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The Parthenon and the Acropolis
Melanie Zoch
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Southwest view of Acropolis rock with the south slope- Photo Copyright Hellenic Ministry of Culture
The Parthenon as it is believed to have originally looked
The Parthenon today
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General Description:
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On a hill outside of the ancient city of Athens, Greece is the Acropolis which has as its crowning jewel a temple of the Greek goddess Athena, the Parthenon. It was built by the Greek general and statesman Pericles between 447-432 B.C.E. and was used to worship Athena. Parthenon means “temple of the virgin”. The Acropolis was always used as a sacred site even before they built the Parthenon, but the Persians kept destroying the temples until the Greeks built the Parthenon. Unfortunately, it was not kept as such and was stripped of its valuables and turned into other places of worship. In the 5th century, Middle Ages it was a place to worship the Christian Virgin Mary and in 1460 it was a Mosque to worship Mohammed until the 19th century. But the worst damage was done to the temple in 1687 when the Turks were using it to store weapons and gunpowder and the Venetians blew it up. The Turks were in power then and sold many pieces of the Parthenon to the English Lord Elgin.
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In 1974, it was given back to the Greeks who have turned it into a symbol of democracy once again, as well as a place for people who love the classics to go and feel that they are there, walking among Plato and the great thinkers of ancient Greece.
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There are many pieces of the Parthenon that were stolen by the greedy Lord Elgin and are in the British museum and elsewhere in Europe and should all be given back so that the Parthenon may come closer to becoming whole again as well as the fact that it is a history of the Greek people and should be with them.
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Today the Service of Restoration of the Monuments of the Acropolis in collaboration with the First Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities are restoring and rebuilding the Parthenon.
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On the top of the Parthenon was a frieze of the gods and goddesses. Athena is to the right of Zeus.
From left to right, Hera-sitting, Mercury-with wings in back, Zeus, Nike in the middle with the wings, Athena, Hercules with the axe in back, Poseiden, and Apollo with the lyre, and the Cherub Cupid.
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Architectural Design:
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The Parthenon was brilliantly designed by ancient architects Iktinos and Kallikrates. It is a rectangle 8 columns wide and 17 columns long. The Parthenon is a post and lintel temple with Doric columns and an Ionic Frieze. There are no straight lines in the design of the Parthenon which enhances its feel as a part of the organic surrounds of the Acropolis. Designed to bulge out at mid column it gives an illusion of holding great weight. The columns were designed to bulge so they did not look thin against the blue sky. Even the steps are not straight across. It was very difficult to be so precise in the past and even now it would be a challenge. The Metopes have Ionic Friezes that contain brilliant, life like images of Greek Mythology including Centauromachy on the South which is the best preserved, Amazonomachy on the West side, Gigantomachy on the East side and the Trojan War on the North side. “Machy” means “war of the.”
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Centaurmachy, the war between the Centaurs and the Lapiths
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Harmony with Nature:
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The Parthenon is built to look organic and be in harmony with its surroundings. It is made of brilliant white marble quarried nearby. On a hill surrounded by trees its design makes it at once pop out visually yet look as though it should be there. The look of natural marble and how it was designed to flow makes it at once a huge monument and a massive work of natural art. These days the Parthenon is in danger from nature from earthquakes and the weather.
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The Parthenon is built to look organic and be in harmony with its surroundings. It is made of brilliant white marble quarried nearby. On a hill surrounded by trees its design makes it at once pop out visually yet look as though it should be there. The look of natural marble and how it was designed to flow makes it at once a huge monument and a massive work of natural art. These days the Parthenon is in danger from nature from earthquakes and the weather.
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Symbolism and Sacred Objects:
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The statue of Athena inside the Parthenon was made by the sculptor Pheidias of Chryselephantine (Ivory) and gold and stood 40 feet in height. Below is a replica and drawing. The original was stolen by a Roman Emporer and taken to Constantinople and unfortunately was destroyed by the Christians at the time of the crusades. The Parthenon also is a symbol of Democracy which the Greeks invented and are very proud of to this day.
Statue of Athena
Drawing by Candace Smith, from Stewart 1990, fig. 361, 1993
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How it was used by Worshippers:
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The ancient Greeks believed in many gods and goddesses. Athena was the daughter of Zeus and considered one of the most powerful gods. She was the goddess of wisdom, war, weaving, crafts, metal work of weapons and heroic journeys. Worshippers were not allowed inside, only the priests of Athena were. They could look in and see and worship the awe inspiring statue of Athena, holding Nike in her hand which stands for victory. The ancient Greeks believed that Athena actually was present in the Parthenon and it was a place where she resided. It is not really known for sure, but some scholars have supposed that young virgins wove textiles in honor of Athena there. In modern times, there is a resurgence of the old mythology in Athens and there are now people who currently worship Athena and go there to pray to her.
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Sources:
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Shinto Shrine at IseKevin Thomas
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The Shinto religion of Japan states that nature is a magical place that houses the gods of the physical universe. These gods are better characterized by the Shinto religion as “spirits” which reside in natural objects referred to as kami. Kami embody the natural processes of growth, production, fertility and renewal. They are worshiped to provide for the spiritual and physical needs of the Japanese people. At first, there was no actual shrine architecture to signify these sacred spaces; instead a stone, mountain, forest, tree, or other natural structure (kami itself) served as the main place of worship within the religion. Eventually shrines were built to house the kami deep within. The Shinto Shrine at Ise was built in 685 A.D.
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Architectural Design:
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The Shinto Shrine at Ise is composed of wood and other construction materials taken directly from the surrounding natural environment of the Shrine. The Ise Shrine is taken down and rebuilt every twenty years. In the process of rebuilding, the location of the old shrine is covered with white pebbles and a small central hut (called the oi-ya) is all that remains. Within the hut is the shin-no-mihashira (sacred central post.) The oi-ya and shin-no-mihashira are the holy parts of the structure around which the new Shinto Shrine is built. The structure is actually composed of two distinct shrines; the outer shrine (Toyouke Daijingu) and the inner Imperial shrine (Kotai Jingu or Naiku.)
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Harmony with Nature:
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The great Shinto shrine at Ise is built in an expansive forest of cryptomeria trees. Cryptomeria trees are tall massive conifer trees that are used to symbolize growth and eternity but also which lend a feeling of awe to all those that travel to the monument at Ise. The wood of the cryptomeria is reddish-pink in color and produces an attractive scent that fills the entire area. The fact that the Shrine is built using the same materials found within the forest and is as Jonathan Reynolds of The Art Bulletin magazine puts it “devoid of unnecessary ornamentation” creates a spiritual symbiosis between the shrine itself and its adjacent natural location; the shrine is not only located within the forest but is a part of it.
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Symbolism and Sacred Objects:
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The Shinto Shrine at Ise is devoted to the goddess (or spirit) Amaterasu Omikami symbolized by the inner Imperial shrine (Naiku.) Amaterasu Omikami translates to “that which illuminates heaven” and is the sun spirit which is one of the most important deities in the Shinto religion. She is represented by a sacred mirror (Yata no Kagami: one of the Three Sacred Treasures of ancient imperial Japan) that is positioned within the shrine as its holiest possession (kami).
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How it is used by Worshippers:
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The Shinto Shrine at Ise is not open to the public. Since 690 A.D. it has been the place of the enthronement ceremony of the Emperor of Japan. The ceremony is extremely private and involves the presentation of the Yata no Kagami along with the other two sacred treasures (Kusanagi Sword and Yasakani no magatama necklace of jewels) to the emperor by high Shinto priestess. In addition, annual festivals are held outside the Shrine at Ise to pray for ample harvest, present offerings, break in the New Year, and celebrate Japanese history, etc.
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Sources:
Reynolds, M., Jonathan (June 2003). Ise shrine and a modernist construction of Japanese tradition. The Art Bulletin, 83(2), pp. 316-341. Published by College Art Association..
University of Pittsburg. Ancient civilizations: Japan - the archaeological age. Retrieved November 2, 2008, from: http://www.pitt.edu/~asian/week-4/week-4.html.
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University of California, Berkeley. Sacred Spaces in Shinto. Retrieved November 2, 2008, from: http://orias.berkeley.edu/visuals/japan_visuals/shinto.HTM.
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